Horizontally transferred genes in the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi encode enzymes and are expressed during early development

Horizontal gene transfer has had major impacts on the biology of a wide range of organisms from antibiotic resistance in bacteria to adaptations to herbivory in arthropods. A growing body of literature shows that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between non-animals and animals is more commonplace than previously thought. In this study, we present a thorough investigation of HGT in the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi. We applied tests of phylogenetic incongruence to identify nine genes that were likely transferred horizontally early in ctenophore evolution from bacteria and non-metazoan eukaryotes. All but one of these HGTs (an uncharacterized protein) appear to perform enzymatic activities in M. leidyi, supporting previous observations that enzymes are more likely to be retained after HGT events. We found that the majority of these nine horizontally transferred genes were expressed during early development, suggesting that they are active and play a role in the biology of M. leidyi. This is the first report of HGT in ctenophores, and contributes to an ever-growing literature on the prevalence of genetic information flowing between non-animals and animals.