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You list three sensible causes, but it would seem to me from experience, OS internals (context switches, interrupts etc) and from theoretical consideration that I/O (input/output) is a major source of energy use See Eurosys Pathak 2012 20-65% savings possible optimizing I/O (https://www.cs.columbia.edu/~nieh/teaching/e6998/papers/eprof_eurosys2012.pdf)

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